Europe’s energy transition is a metals transition.
Cobalis is a think tank on critical metals, the energy transition and European industrial strategy. We connect academic research, the metals industry and European policymakers.
- 73%
- of the world’s cobalt was mined in DR Congo
- 78%
- of the world’s natural graphite was mined in China
- 48%
- of the world’s copper was refined in China
- 71%
- of the world’s platinum was mined in South Africa
In 2025. Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (estimates); shares calculated by Cobalis.
We are forming the founding team. Leadership and analyst roles are open at every level of study.
See the open rolesWhy critical metals matter for Europe
Europe has set ambitious targets for its energy transition. The metals it needs, and the capacity to refine them, are mostly elsewhere.
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The midstream gap
Batteries, grids, wind turbines and electric motors all depend on a short list of critical raw materials. Europe’s weakest point is not only mining but the midstream: the refining and chemical separation that turn ore into battery-grade material. China dominates this segment, and Europe has little capacity of its own.
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Regulation
The Critical Raw Materials Act sets benchmarks for extraction, processing and recycling within the Union, and Europe’s responses to the US Inflation Reduction Act aim to keep clean-technology manufacturing at home. The open question is execution: Europe sets strict targets while still outsourcing much of its extractive footprint.
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Supply corridors
Europe will keep importing. Partnerships with producing countries, under Global Gateway and corridors such as Lobito, linking the DRC and Zambia to the Angolan coast, will shape where metals are mined and processed, and who benefits. Cobalt comes overwhelmingly from the DRC, so African perspectives belong at the centre of this work.
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Technology
Solvometallurgy, closed-loop hydrometallurgy and the recovery of metals from mining waste could make processing in Europe cleaner and more acceptable to the communities that host it. Whether they scale is as much an economic and regulatory question as an engineering one.
Where critical raw materials come from
Full data and tablesChoose a material to see what it is used for and which countries produced it in 2025. Compare mined and refined copper to see processing gather in fewer places, or open the artisanal mining view for eastern DR Congo.
- None reported
- Under 1%
- 1–5%
- 5–15%
- 15–40%
- Over 40%
- EU border
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DR Congo mined 73% of the world’s cobalt in 2025.
Used in
- Cathodes of lithium-ion batteries, its leading use worldwide
- Superalloys for jet engines and gas turbines
- Hard metals for cutting and drilling tools
- Catalysts and chemicals
Where it comes from
- DR Congo 73%
- Indonesia 14%
- Russia 2%
- Madagascar 1%
- Australia 1%
- Philippines 1%
- Others 7%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 90%.
Part of DR Congo’s cobalt is dug by artisanal and small-scale miners alongside industrial mines.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, cobalt chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
Australia mined 32% of the world’s lithium in 2025.
Used in
- Rechargeable batteries for electric vehicles, grid storage and electronics: about 88% of global use
- Ceramics and glass
- Lubricating greases
Where it comes from
- Australia 32%
- China 21%
- Chile 19%
- Zimbabwe 10%
- Argentina 8%
- Brazil 4%
- Others 5%
EU countries named by the USGS: under 1% (Portugal). Top three producers: 72%.
The USGS withholds US production; the world total excludes it.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, lithium chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
Indonesia mined 67% of the world’s nickel in 2025.
Used in
- Stainless and alloy steels
- Nickel alloys for high-temperature and corrosive environments
- Cathodes of high-energy lithium-ion batteries
- Plating and catalysts
Where it comes from
- Indonesia 67%
- Philippines 7%
- Russia 5%
- Canada 4%
- New Caledonia 4%
- China 3%
- Others 11%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 79%.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, nickel chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
China mined 78% of the world’s natural graphite in 2025.
Used in
- Anodes of lithium-ion batteries
- Refractories and steelmaking
- Brake linings and lubricants
Where it comes from
- China 78%
- Madagascar 4%
- Tanzania 4%
- Brazil 4%
- Mozambique 3%
- Russia 1%
- Others 3%
EU countries named by the USGS: under 1% (Austria, Germany). Top three producers: 86%.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, graphite chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
China mined 69% of the world’s rare earths in 2025.
Used in
- Permanent magnets for electric motors and wind turbines, the leading use worldwide
- Catalysts
- Glass, ceramics and polishing powders
Where it comes from
- China 69%
- United States 13%
- Australia 7%
- Myanmar 6%
- Thailand 1%
- India 1%
- Others 2%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 90%.
Lanthanides and yttrium, as rare-earth-oxide equivalent.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, rare earths chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
Chile mined 23% of the world’s copper in 2025.
Used in
- Power grids, cables and electrical wiring
- Electric motors and transport equipment
- Building construction
Where it comes from
- Chile 23%
- DR Congo 14%
- Peru 12%
- China 8%
- Russia 6%
- United States 4%
- Others 34%
EU countries named by the USGS: 2% (Poland). Top three producers: 49%.
In DR Congo’s Copperbelt, some copper ore is dug by artisanal and small-scale miners.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, copper chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
China refined 48% of the world’s copper in 2025.
Used in
- The same uses as mined copper: grids, wiring, motors and construction
- Refining turns ore concentrate into the high-purity copper cathode that industry buys
Where it comes from
- China 48%
- DR Congo 10%
- Chile 6%
- Japan 5%
- Russia 3%
- United States 3%
- Others 25%
EU countries named by the USGS: 4% (Germany, Poland). Top three producers: 64%.
Refinery output: where copper is processed, not where it is mined.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, copper chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
South Africa mined 38% of the world’s manganese in 2025.
Used in
- Steelmaking, which drives most demand
- Battery cathodes
- Chemicals, fertilisers and animal feed
Where it comes from
- South Africa 38%
- Gabon 25%
- Ghana 10%
- Australia 8%
- Brazil 4%
- India 4%
- Others 12%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 72%.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, manganese chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
South Africa mined 71% of the world’s platinum in 2025.
Used in
- Catalytic converters that cut vehicle emissions
- Fuel cells and electrolysers for hydrogen
- Catalysts for chemicals and petroleum refining
- Glass manufacturing and jewellery
Where it comes from
- South Africa 71%
- Russia 12%
- Zimbabwe 11%
- Canada 3%
- United States 1%
- Others 2%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 93%.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, platinum group chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
Russia mined 43% of the world’s palladium in 2025.
Used in
- Catalytic converters in petrol vehicles
- Electronics, including multilayer ceramic capacitors
- Dental and medical devices
Where it comes from
- Russia 43%
- South Africa 36%
- Canada 8%
- Zimbabwe 8%
- United States 3%
- Others 1%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 88%.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, platinum group chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
China mined 79% of the world’s tungsten in 2025.
Used in
- Cemented carbides for cutting, drilling and mining tools
- Alloys and specialty steels
- Electrical, lighting and welding components
Where it comes from
- China 79%
- Vietnam 4%
- Kazakhstan 3%
- North Korea 2%
- Russia 2%
- Bolivia 2%
- Others 8%
EU countries named by the USGS: 3% (Austria, Spain, Portugal). Top three producers: 85%.
Tungsten ore (wolframite) is also dug by artisanal miners in eastern DR Congo.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, tungsten chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
DR Congo mined 52% of the world’s tantalum in 2025.
Used in
- Capacitors in phones, computers and cars
- Superalloys for aerospace
- Corrosion-resistant equipment and carbides
Where it comes from
- DR Congo 52%
- Rwanda 16%
- Nigeria 16%
- Brazil 8%
- China 3%
- Australia 2%
- Others 3%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 84%.
Much of DR Congo’s tantalum ore (coltan) comes from artisanal and small-scale mines.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, tantalum chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
China produced 99% of the world’s gallium in 2025.
Used in
- Chips for telecoms, radar and power electronics (gallium arsenide and gallium nitride)
- LEDs and laser diodes
- Solar cells
Where it comes from
- China 99%
- Russia 1%
- Japan under 1%
No EU country is named among producers. Top three producers: 100%.
Primary (low-purity) gallium, recovered mainly as a by-product of alumina and zinc processing.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, gallium chapter (2025 estimates). Shares calculated by Cobalis.
IPIS has recorded 3,423 artisanal and small-scale mining sites in eastern DR Congo since 2009.
Sites by mineral
- Tantalum ore (coltan) 365
- Tungsten ore (wolframite) 86
- Tin ore (cassiterite) 898
- Cobalt 52
- Copper 93
- Gold 2,235
A site can produce more than one mineral. Gold is not a critical raw material, but it dominates artisanal mining in the region.
At the most recent visit
- 31%
- of tin, tantalum and tungsten sites had armed actors present, including army units (243 of 772 sites with data).
- About 440,000
- workers were counted, across 2,820 sites.
Each site is shown as it was at its most recent visit, between 2009 and 2025. Sites are surveyed in campaigns, so this is a record of visits rather than a census.
Data: IPIS (International Peace Information Service), Open data on artisanal and small-scale mining sites in eastern DR Congo, licensed under the Open Data Commons Attribution License (ODC-BY) v1.0. Retrieved 6 October 2026. Explore IPIS’s full interactive map.
What we do
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Research
Policy briefs, strategic notes and working papers from our Strategic Intelligence Hubs, reviewed by technical experts before publication.
Research agenda -
Data
A tracker of Europe’s critical raw materials projects, a world production map and an explorer of the materials listed in the Act.
Data -
Convenings
Roundtables where researchers, industry and policymakers can speak frankly, starting with a launch roundtable open to everyone. No passive conferences.
Events -
Business cases
Strategy and reverse-engineering challenges set by partner companies and worked on by Cobalis teams at case nights.
Partner with us
Forthcoming publications
Research agenda- Working paper #0 How Europe’s technological set-up in the mining industry is pivoting Midstream and Processing Technologies In preparation
The CRMA tracker
Open the trackerHelp build Cobalis from day one
Roles and roadmapWe are forming the founding team for the 2026–27 academic year.
Membership is open at every level of study, in engineering, economics, business, political science and law. You will publish real work, meet industry and policymakers, and shape the organisation from the start.
Apply to join- Technical lead Leads the technical work of the Midstream and Processing Technologies hub and makes sure every publication is technically sound.
- Policy lead Leads the Policy and Supply Corridors hub and the relationship with policymakers.
- Communications and design lead Owns how Cobalis reads, looks and reaches its audience.
- Operations and finance lead Keeps the organisation running, funded and accountable.
- Hub analysts Research and write within one of the Strategic Intelligence Hubs.